No location in Sulawesi is more than 100 km from the coast. Map by Rhett A. Butler
Sections:
- Sulawesi
- Geography
- Economy
- Biodiversity
- Marine
- Forests
- Deforestation
- Threats
- Parks
- News
- References
Forest condition on the island of Sulawesi. A composite of 32 Landsat images was manually classified based upon both visual inspection and the results from several remote-sensing techniques. The 'converted' class includes all sites that are completely dominated by human activity, including urban areas and regions of intensive agriculture and plantations. Image and caption courtesy of Canon, et. al (2007).
NEWS on SULAWESI
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FACTS ON SULAWESI
Land Areas: 174,600 square kilometers, making it the world’s 11th largest island (67, 413 square miles, 17.4 million hectares, or 43 million acres)
Human Population: 16 million (2005)
Country: Indonesia
Biodiversity: 1450 birds, 127 mammals
Percent Forest Cover: Around 20%
Deforestation Rate: 2.35 percent annually between 1985-1997)
Causes of Deforestation: Agriculture, logging, and mining
OVERVIEW: SULAWESI
Shaped like a lower-case 'k', the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is the world’s eleventh largest island. A treasure-trove of biodiversity with a startling number of endemic species (species that are found no-where else in the world), Sulawesi—formerly known as Celebes—has only recently become a target of conservationists. While much of the island remains unstudied by researchers much of its forest habitat has already been lost.
The tropical forests—which once covered the whole island—have been broadly deforested by agriculture, logging, and mining. The process accelerated in the late 20th Century when the government began supporting commercial logging and large agriculture projects. Locals also began converting forests into cash crops.
A study in 2007 found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest is gone or degraded, including almost the entirety of Sulawesi’s rich lowland rainforest and mangroves. The study further speculated that little deforestation in the future is possible since most of forest land that was useful for cultivation and logging is already gone. With few attractive commercial trees, Sulawesi’s highland forests have fared better, though many have suffered from degradation.
SULAWESI'S GEOGRAPHY
At 174,600 square kilometers, Sulawesi is the world's eleventh largest island just after Ellesmere Island in Canada. It is famously described as a big island with no interior, given that the island consists almost entirely of four interconnecting peninsulas.
Its large and winding coastline measures 6,000 kilometers. The island is surrounded on all sides by other big islands: Borneo to the west, Philippines to the north, the Maluku islands to the east, and Flores and Timor to the south.
Politically, Sulawesi is split into six Indonesian provinces: Mamuju (West Sulawesi), Manado (North Sulawesi), Palu (Central Sulawesi), Makassar (South Sulawesi), Kendari (Southeast Sulawesi), and Gorontalo. With 1.25 million people, Makassar is the largest city on the island; it rests on the southwestern peninsula.
The strange shape of Sulawesi—five connected peninsulas with little to hold them together—was created by a collision of multiple plates originating from Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands.
The island contains thirteen freshwater lakes including the deepest lake, Matano, in Southeast Asia.
SULAWESI'S ECONOMY
Sulawesi is largely dependent on crops and seafood for its economy: in 2004 agriculture made up 34 percent of Sulawesi's economy. Crops important to Sulawesi's economy include coconuts, nutmeg, soy, coffee, and rice. The island is one of the world's largest producers of cacao. It also produces a lot of cloves for kretek cigarettes.
Fishing, and increasingly aquaculture, has become important to Sulawesi's economy. Fish ponds and shrimp aquaculture has replaced much of the island's mangroves.
Other economic industries include commercial timber such as teak and rattan and tourism, which is seen as increasingly important by the government.
In 2004, 16.7 percent of Sulawesi's population were considered to be living in poverty. Most of the poor live in rural areas.
BIODIVERSITY PROFILE OF SULAWESI
Sulawesi has a remarkable diversity of terrestrial flora and fauna and rich coastal marine life. Since the unique island sits on Wallace's Line it harbors species of both Asian and
Australasian ancestors, though the majority are Australasian in origin.
On land, the percentage of endemic species is particularly noteworthy. Of 127 known mammals, 72 are endemic, making for one of the highest rates of endemic mammals in the world (62 percent). When bats are excluded—since they have better potential for migration—the percentage leaps to an astounding 98 percent. In addition, 34 percent of Sulawesi’s nearly 1500 birds are endemic.
Other fauna are unfortunately little studied. Twenty-five species of amphibian are known, forty lizards, and at least 52 terrestrial snakes. In addition, there are 38 species of large swallow-tailed butterfly, which so entranced Alfred Russell Wallace on his visit to the island. Researchers have also found 67 endemic species of fish in Sulawesi's dwindling mangrove forests.
Some standouts include:
- Two wild cattle species, the Lowland anoa and the Mountain anoa. Both are listed as Endangered by the IUCN, little is known about these animals but they are heavily hunted for food and their horns.
- The babirusa, also known as 'pig-deer, comprises three species of pig. Each male babirusa sports a set of four tusks, two of which stick through their snout. All three species are threatened with extinction.
- The mysterious and little-studied Sulawesi palm civet which is classified as Vulnerable. This predator lives and hunts in a wide-variety of habitats.
- The Crested black macaque is called the most threatened primate on Sulawesi. It is killed for bushmeat and caught for the pet trade. In addition, deforestation and mining have taken a large toll on its habitat. They used to occur in groups of over 100, but no longer. The species is considered Critically Endangered.
- The maleo is an Endangered chicken-sized bird. They nest in traditional sites, over a third of which have been abandoned recently due to human impact. They lay one massive egg in meter-deep pits, which humans sometimes poach for food.
Newly discovered species include the Togian White-eye, a small olive black and white passerine, which is likely endangered; the Togian hawk-owl in 2004; a rediscovered species of pygmy tarsier in 2000; and fifteen new species of beetles in 2005.
The island's biodiversity is ripe for more discovery and study.
MARINE PROFILE
Sulawesi is surrounded by rich seas with large habitats of seagrass and coral reefs. These habitats are home to leatherback, hawksbill, and green sea turtles, as well as dugongs and six of the world's seven giant clam species. Whales that use the waters as a by-way include sperm whales, pygmy sperm whales, and killer whales.
One of the marine biodiversity standouts is the Sulawesi coelacanth. This is the second species of the prehistoric survivor and is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List because it is threatened as bycatch. The coelacanth is not a target for fishermen.
SULAWESI’S FORESTS
Sulawesi has a startling diversity of forest types: fourteen different forest ecosystems have been identified. The wide diversity of forests is part of the reason for the islands high rate of endemism and biodiversity.
Mangrove forests: found in estuaries and along Sulawesi's large coastline. At one time mangroves covered much of the coastlines, but most of these have been lost.
Montane forests: rising above 1,000 meters these forests are some of the most intact forests in Sulawesi. Lower montane forests are primarily made up of oak and chestnut species, while upper montane forests support a variety of conifers.
Monsoon forests: this unique forest type is little-studied. It receives the lowest amount of rain in all Indonesia and is able to survive long droughts. However, much of this forest type has been lost to grazing land.
Ultrabasic forests: a unique forest type that grows on nutrient-poor ultrabasic soil with little plant diversity, but high endemism since unique plants—like pitcher plants—have evolved to fill this niche. Ultrabasic forests are made up of short twisted trees. Few fauna live here.
Limestone forests: shallow soil and steep slopes make these forests low both in abundance and diversity. They are home to some endemic species like snails.
Peat swamp forest: though Sulawesi only has small areas of peat swamp forests they contain high biodiversity, especially of birds.
Freshwater swamp forests: like peat swamp forests, freshwater forests only cover a small area of Sulawesi. They are made up of palms, pandans, and pitcher plants.
FOREST LOSS IN SULAWESI
Approximately 80 percent of Sulawesi's forests are either gone or degraded to some degree. Over 50 percent are considered in poor condition, while 30 percent—mostly in the highlands (above 1500 meters)—are classified as in good condition.
Over 95 percent of Sulawesi's mangrove forests and lowland forests are disturbed. In less than a decade—between the mid 1980s and 1993—Sulawesi mangroves have been decreased by over 60 percent in part due to aquaculture for seafood such as shrimp.
Wetlands have suffered even worse: 99 percent of the island's wetlands are either gone or damaged.
Current rates of forest loss are lower than much of Indonesia, but this is primarily because much of the island's lowland forest was already gone by as early as 1985.
Forest loss is due primarily to logging and conversion. Beginning in the 1970s the government began supporting large-scale logging and vast agricultural projects. Since then migrants from urban areas to the countryside have converted large tracks of forest into cash crops such as coffee and cacao.
CURRENT THREATS
Large-scale loss of forest is not as big of a threat in Sulawesi as other islands in Indonesia, simply because there is relatively little forest left. However, deforestation of remaining forest would be catastrophic for the island's unique biodiversity, much of which are already threatened.
Since montane forests contain very few commercial species, they are relatively safe from loggers, but hunting, fires, and erosion due to cleared areas remain major threats.
Pollution and habitat destruction from mining poses a threat to biodiversity and ecosystem health. Mining is even reported to occur within the boundaries of protected areas.
Bushmeat hunting and poaching is a large issue for a number of endangered species, including anoa, babirusa, black crested macaques, and the maleo since its eggs are poached.
South Sulawesi, as opposed to north and central, is serviced by few parks and protected areas, leaving species and forests there particularly vulnerable.
PROTECTED AREAS
Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves.
Central Sulawesi contains the most well-known park on the island, Lore Lindu National Park spanning 229,000 hectares. It is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
On the northern peninsula, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park protects 300,000 square hectares, while Rawa Aopa Watmohai National Park protects 105,194 hectares in southeast Sulawesi.
Most of the parks, however, suffer frequent encroachment for illegal logging, mining, and even conversion into crops. Thousands of illegal gold miners have been found plying their trade in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park.
Sulawesi also has three national marine parks: Bunaken, Wakatobi, and Take Bonerate.
Bunaken National Park includes islands, mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. Taka Bonerate National Park protects the Taka Bonerate atoll (and surrounding coral reefs), the world's third largest atoll and the largest in Southeast Asia. Last but not least, Wakatobi National Park is made up of island chains and 25 coral reefs.
PHOTOS FROM SULAWESI
Rice fields
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Muddy rice fields in Tana Toraja
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Rice fields planted on former mangrove forest land
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Tombs carved in a rock face at Lemo
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Rice fields at Lemo
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Little girls at Lemo
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Giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus)
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Deep red millipede on forest floor
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Tau-Tau Effigies at Londa Nanggala
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Top breed white water buffalo
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Red anchovies at fish market in Rantepao
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Palawa village
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Rice fields near Batutomonga village
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Yellow and brown toad in Sulawesi.
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Orange orchid with magenta spots
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Pomelo (Jerunga) fruit
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Bamboo stakes placed to control water hyacinth at Lake Tempe. These bamboo tripods form bungkas, large man-made circles of floating vegetation. These serve as fish traps, attracting fish during the rainy seaons. As water levels drop towards the dry season, a fine bamboo fence is built around the bungka, trapping the fish.
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Lowland rice paddies of Sulawesi
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Emerald green rice paddies of south Sulawesi
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Emerald green rice terraces of south Sulawesi
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Colorful house among green rice fields of south Sulawesi
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Colorful house among green rice paddies
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Sulawesi home outside of Makassar
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Riverside village downriver from Bantimurung falls
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Muddy rice fields near Ketu Kese
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Sulawesi home outside of Ujung Pandang
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Iridescent turquoise and black butterfly in hand.
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Mountain peak in South Sulawesi
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Grey tree frog
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House gecko on yellow-orange background
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Terraced rice paddies of Batutomonga
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Wooden effigies of the dead at Lemo
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Wooden effigies of the dead in cliff walls at Lemo
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Green cacao pods still on the tree. Cacao is cauliflorous, meaning the fruit grow directly out of the tree trunk and branches.
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Rice fields at Lemo
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Terraced rice fields of Batutomonga
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Woman planting in rice paddy
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Rice paddies near Batutomonga village
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Rice paddies near Batutomonga village
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Water buffalo in rice paddies near Batutomonga village
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Rice paddies at Batutomonga
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Isolated mountain home in forests of Sulawesi
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Vendor carrying all of his wares on the back of his motorbike
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Riverside huts along river draining Lake Tempe
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CITATIONS:
Charles H. Cannon, Marcy Summers, John R. Harting, and Paul J.A. Kessler (2007). "Developing Conservation Priorities Based on Forest Type, Condition, and Threats in a Poorly Known Ecoregion: Sulawesi, Indonesia". Biotropica online 25 May to June 25, 2007.
Daws, Gavan and Marty Fujita. Archipelago: the Islands of Indonesia. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1999.
Erdmann, M. 2008. Latimeria menadoensis. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. www.iucnredlist.org.
Indonesian Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2003.
Indonesia National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS), 2004.
Report on Biodiversity and Tropical Forests in Indonesia, USAID/Indonesia, 2004. Prepared by : (1) Steve Rhee, M.E.Sc. (2) Darrell Kitchener, Ph.D. (3) Tim Brown, Ph.D. (4) Reed Merrill, M.Sc. (5) Russ Dilts, Ph.D. (6) Stacey Tighe, Ph.D.
Ruud de Lang, Gernot Vogel. The Snakes of Sulawesi. Herpetologia Bonnensis II.
Proceedings of the 13th Congress of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica. pp. 35-38. (2006)
Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group 2008. Bubalus depressicornis. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. www.iucnredlist.org.
Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N. 2008. Macaca nigra. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. www.iucnredlist.org.
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